The Government of India is revising the Green India Mission (GIM), originally established in 2014, to address ecological challenges in vulnerable landscapes, specifically focusing on the Aravalli Range, the Western Ghats, and the Himalayas. This initiative is vital for fulfilling India's climate commitments, biodiversity conservation, and ensuring food and water security. The GIM has contributed to an increase in the country’s tree cover but has faced criticism for a plantation-centered approach that overlooks broader ecological revival goals.

Key points from the revised GIM include:

• Focus Areas: The new GIM emphasizes restoring vulnerable ecological landscapes and better targeting micro-climatic zones through best practices adapted to regional conditions.
• Income Generation: A significant shortcoming of the original GIM was its failure to create income-generating opportunities for communities dependent on these ecosystems, a concern the revised document addresses.
• Environmental Challenges: The Western Ghats, Aravalli range, and Himalayan regions are affected by deforestation, human-wildlife conflicts, and erratic rainfall, worsened by unregulated tourism and infrastructure development. A notable incident was the devastating landslide in Wayanad, emphasizing the need for a more resilient environment.
• Degradation Due to Human Activity: Studies have reported severe degradation in these regions due to illegal activities, such as tree felling and mining, leading to ecological threats including desertification in the Aravalli range, which is contributing to pollution levels in the National Capital Region.
• Environmental-Development Conflict: Restoration efforts have been hindered by a dichotomy between environmental protection and developmental needs, as illustrated by recommendations from the 2011 Gadgil Committee that sought to regulate activities in the Western Ghats but faced widespread political resistance. The Kasturirangan Committee’s suggestions have similarly not been implemented effectively.
• Court Rulings on Environmental Protection: Despite Supreme Court orders aimed at curbing illegal quarrying in the Aravalli range, such activities persist, indicating a lack of enforcement of judicial directives.
• Societal Inclusion: A significant challenge for the revised GIM is to align ecological restoration efforts with the livelihoods of local communities. Mobilizing social empowerment and public participation in green initiatives is crucial for long-term success.

In conclusion, the revamped Green India Mission aims to address critical ecological issues while also integrating socio-economic dimensions to create sustainable livelihoods for those reliant on these natural ecosystems. The mission’s success will depend on effectively balancing environmental protection with developmental priorities and engaging community stakeholders.

Important Sentences:

• The Government of India is revising the Green India Mission (GIM) to address ecological challenges in vulnerable landscapes, focusing on the Aravalli Range, Western Ghats, and Himalayas.
• The GIM is essential for fulfilling India’s climate commitments, biodiversity conservation, and ensuring food and water security.
• The revised GIM emphasizes restoration through best practices adapted to regional conditions and aims to generate income opportunities for communities.
• Environmental degradation in the Western Ghats, Aravalli, and Himalayas includes deforestation, human-wildlife conflicts, and erratic rainfall.
• Past regulatory recommendations for environmental protection faced political resistance, and suggestions have often remained unenforced.
• The challenge for the revised GIM is to engage local communities and align ecological restoration with livelihood generation for sustainable outcomes.

The Bonn Climate Change Conference commenced on June 16 and will continue until June 26, 2023, in Bonn, Germany, bringing together over 5,000 delegates from governments and various stakeholders. This annual event serves as a significant platform for discussions regarding financial mobilization and strategies aimed at addressing climate change, forming part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Overview of the Bonn Climate Change Conference:

• Event Duration: June 16 to June 26, 2023.
• Participants: Over 5,000 delegates, including government representatives, Indigenous leaders, international organizations, scientists, and civil society members.
• Objective: To discuss both technical and scientific aspects of climate negotiations and set an agenda for the upcoming Conference of the Parties (COP), typically held in November.

Significance:

• The Bonn Conference, formally recognized as the Sessions of the UNFCCC Subsidiary Bodies (SBs), plays a critical role alongside the COP as a regular climate summit organized by the UNFCCC.
• The outputs of the Bonn negotiations significantly influence the decisions made at COP, with many SB recommendations being integrated into the final outcomes of the COP sessions.
• The conference also serves as a platform to evaluate the implementation of agreements established in previous COP meetings.

Key Organizational Bodies:

• The conference is overseen by the two permanent Subsidiary Bodies of the UNFCCC:
  • Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI): This body provides support in assessing and reviewing decisions made under the UNFCCC, facilitating discussions on financial and technical assistance for developing nations.
  • Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA): Works as a liaison between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scientific advisors and the decision-makers within the party delegations attending COP sessions.

Focus for 2023:

• A primary agenda item in 2023 is the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA), aimed at establishing a unified global benchmark for adaptation efforts similar to the 1.5°C limit goal for temperature mitigation set in the Paris Agreement of 2015.
• Progress regarding the GGA has been sluggish, with incremental advancements anticipated at COP28 in Dubai, where a framework for defining global adaptation goals was adopted.

Conclusion:

The Bonn Climate Change Conference stands as a pivotal event within the climate negotiation timeline, providing vital opportunities for dialogue, planning, and coordination among international stakeholders aimed at addressing the pressing global challenge of climate change.

Important Points:

• Event: Bonn Climate Change Conference, June 16-26, 2023.
• Participants: Over 5,000 stakeholders, including government delegates and civil society.
• Purpose: Discussing technical/scientific aspects and preparing agendas for COP.
• Key Bodies: Subsidiary Bodies (SBI and SBSTA) guide discussions and policy formulation.
• Current Agenda: Focus on establishing the Global Goal on Adaptation.
• Progress: GGA framework initiated for further discussion at COP28 in Dubai.

This comprehensive framework is crucial for facilitating international cooperation and effectively addressing climate-related issues while ensuring responsible stewardship of environmental commitments.

Comprehensive Summary: Invasive Alien Species in India

The article discusses the historical and contemporary issues related to invasive alien species in India, particularly focusing on the giant African snail (Lissachatina fulica) and the broader implications of such species resulting from increased global trade.

Key Points:

• Arrival of the Giant African Snail:

  • The giant African snail entered India around 1847 from East Africa, likely hidden in plant crates.
  • Initially appreciated for its appearance, it quickly became an invasive species, threatening crops, native snails, and altering soil ecosystems.

• Impact of Invasive Species:

  • By the mid-20th century, the spread of the snail had significant consequences, including crop damage, displacement of native species, and the introduction of parasites that could harm humans and wildlife.
  • The presence of the giant African snail highlights how unnoticed ecological changes can have profound impacts.

• Global Trade and Biological Invasions:

  • A surge in global trade since the 1800s has led to 20 times the increase in alien species by the early 19th century.
  • Bilateral trade agreements grew from 76 countries with 5,700 trade pairs in 1948 to 186 countries with over 34,000 pairs by the early 2000s.
  • U.S. trade policies under the Trump administration are reshaping global trade dynamics, which may contribute to further introductions of invasive species.

• Mechanisms of Introduction:

  • Invasive species can be introduced accidentally or deliberately through various channels including trade in biological goods and ballast water management in ships.
  • Examples of deliberate introductions such as cane toads in Australia and Gambusia in India illustrate the failures of biocontrol initiatives.

• India’s Erosion of Biodiversity:

  • India is a major participant in both importing and exporting exotic species, many of which are difficult to track.
  • Examples include the introduction of Tilapia, which outcompeted native fish, and Parthenium, introduced via contaminated wheat imports in the mid-20th century.

• Economic Impact:

  • A 2022 study estimated India has incurred a loss of $127.3 billion over 60 years due to invasive alien species, making it the second-most financially affected country after the U.S.
  • The data reflects costs from only about 10 invasive species, while over 2,000 species exist in India, indicating a significant underreporting of economic impact.

• Need for Policy Strengthening:

  • To mitigate risks associated with invasive species, India requires robust national policies, including:
    • Stricter biosecurity measures at entry points.
    • Real-time species tracking and early warning systems.
    • Collaboration between government and research communities to understand invasive species' spread.
    • Mandatory biological impact assessments post-trade to prevent the establishment of invasive species.

• Future Outlook:

  • Current infrastructure and policy inadequacies increase the risks with the projected tripling of freight transport, emphasizing the urgency of implementing stronger biosecurity measures.
  • The article suggests the adoption of a 'One Biosecurity' framework as essential for better management and mitigation of invasive species.

Conclusion:

The article highlights the critical need for India to enhance its border biosecurity systems and reinforce its policies to manage the ongoing threat of invasive alien species effectively. This requires cross-sectoral collaboration, strategic planning, and a proactive approach towards ecological health and economic biodiversity.

Summary of the ONGC Gas Leak Incident in Sivasagar, Assam:

A gas leak at an Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) well, designated as RDS-147 in Sivasagar district, Assam, has been ongoing since June 12, 2023. The incident has resulted in the displacement of approximately 1,500 residents and prompted evacuation measures within the affected region.

• Incident Overview:

  • Date of Occurrence: The blowout occurred on June 12, 2023.
  • Location: Rudrasagar Field, Sivasagar, Assam, which is one of ONGC's oldest operational fields in North East India.
  • Casualties: As of the latest reports, no fire or injuries have been reported aside from one patient who required hospitalization for unconsciousness. Investigation into the cause of the condition is ongoing.

• Evacuation and Relief Efforts:

  • The district administration has evacuated around 1,500 residents from Bhatiapar, with 70 families housed in relief camps in nearby Bangaon.
  • The Assam state government announced Rs. 25,000 as immediate relief per affected family, funded through the Chief Minister’s Relief Fund. Approximately 330 families have received support.

• Gas Characteristics and Safety Measures:

  • ONGC officials stated that analysis reveals the released gas is comprised of 97% methane and is non-toxic. The gas, being lighter than air, is dispersing into higher altitudes, reducing risks to local populations.
  • Preventive measures include a technique known as "water blanketing," which involves pouring water on the well to manage the temperature and reduce the potential for ignition.
  • As of June 21, 2023, gas was leaking at a pressure of approximately 2,500 PSI. ONGC has begun a controlled diversion of gas to a nearby production facility to manage the situation better.

• Government Involvement:

  • Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma has urged Union Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas, Hardeep Singh Puri, to mandate ONGC to adopt a more vigorous approach to address the crisis.
  • The Chief Minister expressed concerns regarding the public perception of ONGC’s response, suggesting there was a lack of urgency.

• Historical Context:

  • There are concerns regarding the potential for significant consequences reminiscent of a previous blowout at Oil India Limited’s Baghjan Oilfield in 2020, which resulted in a fire lasting five months, highlighting the urgency of preventative measures.

• Current Management Efforts:

  • ONGC’s Executive Director for Assam, Bhaskar Choudhury, emphasized ongoing efforts of maintaining cooling measures and ensuring the continuous supply of water to the site.
  • The focus remains on preventing any ignition that could lead to a fire, given the hazardous nature of gas leaks.

This incident underscores the challenges posed by gas extraction operations and the need for diligent emergency responses. It reflects both the environmental challenges and the socio-economic impacts large-scale industrial operations can have on local communities.

Key Points:

• ONGC gas leak in Sivasagar, Assam since June 12, 2023.
• Approximately 1,500 residents evacuated; relief measures include Rs. 25,000 per family.
• Gas is 97% methane; deemed non-toxic and dispersing safely.
• Preventive “water blanketing” method implemented to manage risks.
• Historical context of past blowouts raises concerns over safety.
• Local administration seeking more proactive measures from ONGC.
• Active management strategies in place to control the situation.

Summary of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) Assembly

On June 16, 2024, the first Assembly of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) convened in New Delhi, presided over by the Union Minister for Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Bhupender Yadav, who was unanimously endorsed as President by representatives from nine countries, including Bhutan, Cambodia, Eswatini, Guinea, India, Liberia, Suriname, Somalia, and Kazakhstan.

• Formation and Purpose:

  • The Indian government established the IBCA in March 2024 through the National Tiger Conservation Authority, part of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
  • The IBCA’s primary objective is to focus on the conservation of seven big cat species: Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma.
  • The initiative aims to foster collaboration among stakeholders and replicate successful conservation strategies across the 95 range countries where these big cats are found.

• Financial Commitment:

  • The Indian government has allocated Rs 150 crore for the conservation efforts under the IBCA, covering the period from 2023-24 to 2027-28.

• Membership:

  • By September 2024, 25 countries, including Bangladesh, Nigeria, Egypt, Suriname, Ecuador, Peru, Kenya, and Rwanda, agreed to join the IBCA.
  • All UN member countries are eligible for membership after signing and submitting a framework agreement through a Note Verbale, a diplomatic form of communication.

• Context and Need for the IBCA:

  • The IBCA was initiated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi during a commemoration of the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger in 2023.
  • Historical context indicates that the tiger population in India reduced from approximately 40,000 at the time of independence to about 1,800 by 1970 due to hunting and poaching, emphasizing the dire need for such conservation efforts.

• Ecological Significance:

  • Big cats play a crucial role as apex predators, regulating prey populations and maintaining ecosystems. Their conservation contributes to preventing ecological disasters, preserving habitats, and promoting biodiversity.
  • Protecting these species also aids in climate adaptation and mitigation by facilitating processes that sequester carbon.

• Current Status of Tigers in India:

  • Presently, India hosts more than 3,600 tigers, which constitute about 70% of the global tiger population. However, ongoing challenges include deforestation and human-wildlife conflicts, with evolving poaching methods becoming more sophisticated and efficient, posing renewed threats to these species.

• Collective Action:

  • During the Assembly, Minister Yadav emphasized the necessity for united efforts in conservation.
  • The headquarters agreement ratified at the event established the headquarters and additional offices for the IBCA in India.

Key Points

• International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) was founded in March 2024 to conserve seven species of big cats.
• Rs 150 crore allocated for the IBCA from 2023-24 to 2027-28.
• 25 countries expressed consent to join the alliance as of September 2024.
• Emphasized the historical decline of tigers from 40,000 to 1,800 by 1970.
• 3,600 tigers currently in India, accounting for 70% of the global population.
• An urgent need to tackle deforestation and poaching, which have evolved into sophisticated networks.
• Emphasis on collective action to enhance conservation efforts at the Assembly.
• Ratification of a headquarters agreement establishes IBCA’s operational base in India.

The article discusses the invasion of alien species in India, primarily focusing on the giant African snail (Lissachatina fulica), which was introduced to India around 1847 via colonial trade routes. Initially viewed as a decorative species, it has become one of the most persistent invasive species in the country, significantly impacting agricultural ecosystems, native species, and even human health due to its role as a parasite carrier.

Key points from the article are summarized as follows:

• Invasion Timeline: The giant African snail was introduced in 1847 in colonial Calcutta as a potential ornamental species and rapidly spread throughout India, especially in warm, humid regions devoid of natural predators.

• Impact on Ecosystems: By the mid-20th century, the snail began to devastate crops and ornamental plants, displace native snails, and alter soil ecosystems. It became a carrier for parasites like the rat lungworm, posing threats to both wildlife and human health.

• Global Trade and Invasive Species: The rise in global trade, with a significant increase from 76 countries and 5,700 trade pairs in 1948 to 186 countries and over 34,000 pairs by the early 2000s, has facilitated the movement of invasive species across borders.

• Introduction Mechanisms: Invasive species can be introduced deliberately (e.g., cane toads in Australia) or accidentally through trade, particularly via biological goods contaminated during transport (ballast water biofouling).

• Historical Context of Invasions in India: Past events have illustrated how imports have introduced invasive species. For instance, the 1955 import of contaminated wheat from the U.S. led to the spread of Parthenium grass across India.

• Economic Costs: A recent study highlighted that India suffered an economic loss of approximately $127.3 billion due to invasive species over the past 60 years, making it the second-most affected country globally after the U.S. This figure pertains only to a small subset of known invasive species and does not account for the broader economic impact of all invasive species.

• Focus on Aquatic Species: Semi-aquatic and aquatic invasive species are particularly burdensome economically and pose risks to sectors like public health, water infrastructure, and fisheries.

• Policy Recommendations: The article emphasizes the need for India to enhance its national biosecurity policies, such as strict monitoring at ports, developing species tracking systems, and conducting mandatory biological impact assessments post-trade.

• Future Risks: The ongoing increase in global trade, projected to triple by 2050, heightens the risk of potential new invasions. The long-term impact of introduced species may not be evident until decades later, underscoring the urgent need for preventative measures.

• Call for Action: It is advocated that strengthening border biosecurity must be prioritized. A collaborative approach, termed "One Biosecurity," which integrates various sectors, could enhance management efforts against invasive alien species.

• Research Contributions: The article features insights from Priya Ranganathan and Nobinraja M., who are associated with the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) and focus on ecology and invasive species management.

In conclusion, the introduction of alien species in India poses a significant threat to biodiversity and economic stability. The call for comprehensive policies and heightened biosecurity measures is timely and critical for mitigating the potential impacts of future invasions.

The Kerala Forest Department's recent proposal for a one-time amnesty for individuals possessing wildlife trophies has prompted a renewed discussion regarding potential preferential treatment of wildlife offenders. This initiative is directed to the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and aims to allow legal heirs of wildlife trophy owners to declare their possessions in alignment with Section 40 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Key points from the article include:

• Proposal Overview: The Kerala Forest Department has proposed amnesty to enable individuals to legally declare wildlife trophies they possess, particularly focusing on legal heirs who may not have completed this process due to various circumstances.

• Legal Background: Section 40 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 mandates that any person possessing wildlife trophies must declare them to the Chief Wildlife Warden within 30 days from the commencement of the Act. The Act classifies illegal possession of such trophies as a serious offense, punishable by three to seven years of imprisonment and fines of at least ₹25,000.

• Public Debate: The proposal has rekindled discussions due to contrasting treatments of two specific cases involving celebrity figures—actor Mohanlal, who allegedly possessed ivory, and rapper Vedan (V. M. Hiran Das), who was charged for wearing a leopard tooth pendant. Critics claim that the Forest Department has exhibited leniency towards Mohanlal while acting swiftly against Vedan, raising questions about consistency and fairness in enforcement.

• Controversy in Enforcement: There is notable criticism regarding the handling of the celebrity cases. The Forest Department pursued legal action against Vedan immediately after his alleged wildlife offense came to light, while Mohanlal's case appeared to receive lighter treatment—spurred by an Income Tax Department raid which uncovered his assets.

• Concerns Over Evidence Handling: The department has not removed the contested ivory from Mohanlal’s residence, which has raised fears regarding the potential destruction of evidence. In contrast, Vedan was arrested promptly, implicating a disparity in the approach taken by the department in similar legal circumstances.

• Public and Expert Reactions: Former officials and public commentators have voiced concerns over perceived discrimination, arguing that selective enforcement undermines the rule of law. Critics emphasize the importance of maintaining public trust and equality in the treatment of individuals accused of wildlife crimes, urging equitable handling of cases regardless of the accused's social standing.

• Impact on Wildlife Protection: The selective treatment of wildlife offenders could potentially diminish the public’s confidence in the Forest Department's capacity to enforce wildlife laws impartially. The discussions around this situation highlight the delicate balance that must be maintained between legal enforcement and public trust.

• Conclusion: The Kerala Forest Department’s initiative seeks to address legacy issues of wildlife trophy possession but simultaneously raises significant ethical and administrative questions regarding the enforcement of wildlife protection laws. The handling of high-profile cases like those of Mohanlal and Vedan will likely continue to be scrutinized as stakeholders demand a transparent and fair judicial process.

This summary encapsulates the critical aspects of the ongoing discourse on wildlife protection enforcement in Kerala, emphasizing the intricate relationship between environmental governance, legal compliance, and social equity.

Summary of News Article on Monsoon Impact in Karnataka

On June 18, 2025, Karnataka experienced significant rainfall leading to increased water levels in key reservoirs, prompting flood warnings in certain areas. The following details outline the critical facts regarding the current situation:

• Reservoir Outflows:

  • The Kabini reservoir's outflow in Mysuru district surged to over 25,000 cusecs, leading to alerts for residents downstream.
  • The inflow rate to the Kabini reservoir reached 21,545 cusecs, with the water level approaching capacity at 2,280.84 ft, close to its maximum of 2,284 ft.

• Rainfall Impact:

  • The rise in inflow is attributed to heavy rainfall in the catchment area, specifically the Kapila region in Wayanad, Kerala.
  • An increase in inflow was also noted at the Krishnaraja Sagar (KRS) reservoir in Mandya district due to heavy rains in neighboring Kodagu district, with inflows clocking 29,368 cusecs and the reservoir level at 113.25 ft of a maximum of 124.80 ft.

• Historical Context:

  • Kodagu district had benefited from the early southwest monsoon; however, after some initial heavy rainfall in late May, there was a significant lull. Recent rains have rejuvenated the moisture levels, resulting in increased inflows in reservoirs such as KRS and Harangi.

• Warnings Issued:

  • The Cauvery Neeravari Nigam Limited (CNNL) has advised residents along the riverbanks to move to safer, higher ground with their livestock due to the risks posed by increased outflows.
  • The Superintending Engineer of the Hemavati project issued a precautionary message for those living downstream of the Hemavati reservoir (located in Gorur, Hassan taluk), indicating potential operation of crest gates to release excess water. The water level was recorded at 2,911.35 ft on June 18, 2025, with an inflow of 19,546 cusecs, just short of the maximum level.

Key Facts:

• Date: June 18, 2025
• Kabini Reservoir Outflow: Over 25,000 cusecs
• Kabini Reservoir Inflow: 21,545 cusecs
• Kabini Reservoir Water Level: 2,280.84 ft (capacity 2,284 ft)
• KRS Reservoir Outflow: Inflow at 29,368 cusecs; water level at 113.25 ft (capacity 124.80 ft)
• Hemavati Reservoir Water Level: 2,911.35 ft (10.65 ft short of max); inflow at 19,546 cusecs

This ongoing situation underscores the critical need for vigilance among residents in vulnerable areas, particularly in the context of extreme weather conditions linked to monsoon patterns.

On June 12, a significant gas leak occurred at Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) well RDS-147 located in the Rudrasagar Field of Assam's Sivasagar district, displacing over 1,000 residents and leading to ongoing efforts to manage the situation as it extended into its seventh day by Wednesday. The key occurrences and responses surrounding this incident are summarized as follows:

• Incident Overview:

  • A blowout was reported at the ONGC well during servicing operations, causing gas to gush from the well.
  • The well, RDS-147, is part of ONGC’s oldest operational field in North East India and has been under the company's management since the 1960s.

• Evacuations and Safety Measures:

  • Approximately 1,500 people from the nearby areas of Bhatiapar have been evacuated to ensure their safety. Seventy families have been relocated to a relief camp in Bangaon.
  • The local perception indicates concerns over the adequacy of ONGC’s response to the situation.

• Health Concerns:

  • A resident from Bhatiapar was hospitalized in Jorhat Medical College and Hospital in an unconscious state, prompting further investigation into potential health impacts associated with the gas leak. However, authorities confirmed that the released gas is non-toxic, primarily composed of 97% methane, which is lighter than air and ascends, minimizing risks to nearby communities.

• Government Response:

  • Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma has reached out to Union Minister for Petroleum and Natural Gas Hardeep Singh Puri, urging a more urgent and mission-mode approach from ONGC.
  • The state is providing immediate relief of ₹25,000 per affected family, sourced from the Chief Minister’s Relief Fund, alongside safety measures to support evacuating families.

• Technical Management of the Leak:

  • ONGC has initiated a “water blanketing” strategy, using water to cool down the well and prevent ignitions that could lead to fire incidents, as seen previously in a similar incident at Oil India Limited’s Baghjan Oilfield in 2020.
  • ONGC officials indicated that gas was leaking at approximately 2,500 PSI and have reported progress, managing to connect the well to a nearby production facility to control the gas flow.

• Implications and Historical Context:

  • The blowout at the ONGC well raises crucial concerns over safety and emergency response mechanisms in managing environmental hazards stemming from petroleum operations in sensitive areas like Assam.
  • Precedents, such as the five-month-long fire at the Baghjan Oilfield, highlight the criticality of operational safety in oil and gas extraction endeavors.

In conclusion, while the immediate danger of fire has been mitigated through ongoing water application efforts and strategic management of gas release, the situation calls for comprehensive reassessment of operational protocols, community safety measures, and preparedness in handling such incidents effectively.

Important Points:

• Gas leak at ONGC well RDS-147 in Sivasagar began on June 12.
• Over 1,500 evacuees; 70 families in relief camp.
• Patient health concerns reported; gas deemed non-toxic (97% methane).
• Assam CM urged central government for faster ONGC response.
• ₹25,000 per family relief announced from Chief Minister’s Relief Fund.
• ONGC employing water blanketing to prevent ignition risks.
• Historical context of previous oil field fire incidents underscores need for robust safety measures.

The Bonn Climate Change Conference commenced on June 16, 2023, in Bonn, Germany, and is scheduled to conclude on June 26, 2023. This significant gathering brings together over 5,000 government delegates and stakeholders to address various climate-related issues, primarily focusing on financial mobilization to combat climate change.

Overview of the Bonn Climate Change Conference

• Nature of Conference: The Bonn Climate Change Conference is an annual mid-year meeting under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was established in 1992 to facilitate international cooperation on climate issues.
• Official Designation: The conference is formally known as the Sessions of the UNFCCC Subsidiary Bodies (SBs).
• Participation: It includes representatives from UNFCCC member states, Indigenous groups, international organizations, scientists, and civil society, highlighting its comprehensive and collaborative approach to climate discussions.

Objectives and Importance

• Function: The conference facilitates discussions on technical and scientific aspects related to climate negotiations and aims to outline the agenda for the subsequent Conference of the Parties (COP), typically held in November.
• Influence on COP: The outcomes of the Bonn negotiations significantly impact the decisions made during the COP meetings. Recommendations from the SB meetings often appear in the final decisions at COP.

Structure of the Conference

• Subsidiary Bodies: The discussions are primarily led by two permanent subsidiaries of the UNFCCC:
  • Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI): It assists in assessing and reviewing climate change decisions and supports financial and technical discussions for developing nations.
  • Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA): This body connects scientific experts, such as those from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), with policymakers at COPs to ensure informed decision-making.

Key Topics for 2023

• Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA): A central agenda item is the Global Goal on Adaptation, aimed at establishing a common global target similar to the mitigation goal of limiting temperature increases to below 1.5 degrees Celsius, established in the Paris Agreement (2015).
• Progress on GGA: Although the GGA was established in 2015, significant progress was delayed until COP28 in Dubai, during which a framework was adopted for defining global adaptation goals.

Conclusion

The Bonn Climate Change Conference serves as a crucial platform for ongoing international climate dialogue, setting the stage for significant commitments and actions that will be solidified in the annual COP meetings. The inclusion of various stakeholders underscores the collaborative effort required to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change.

Important Points:

• Bonn Climate Change Conference: June 16-26, 2023.
• Over 5,000 delegates are participating from around the world.
• The conference is part of the UNFCCC framework established to facilitate international climate cooperation.
• Recommendations from Bonn will influence decisions made at the upcoming COP.
• Key topics include financing climate initiatives and the operationalization of the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA).
• SBI and SBSTA are the two main bodies organizing the discussions and providing guidance.

Summary of the News Article on Hemavathi Reservoir Water Level Alert

The Superintending Engineer of the Hemavathi Project has issued an alert instructing residents downstream of the Hemavathi reservoir, located in Goruru, Hassan taluk, Karnataka, to be vigilant due to the rising water levels and potential release of excess water from the dam.

• Context of the Alert: The alert follows incessant rains in the region, which have increased the water level in the reservoir. As of June 18, 2025, the water level was recorded at 2,911.35 feet, with a maximum capacity of 2,922 feet, indicating that it was just 10.65 feet shy of the full capacity.
• Current Inflow: The reservoir has been experiencing an inflow of 19,546 cusecs, suggesting a significant volume of water entering the reservoir due to persistent rainfall.
• Safety Recommendations: G.K. Jyothi, the Superintending Engineer, has strongly urged individuals residing near the riverbanks to evacuate to safer locations promptly. This precautionary measure is intended to mitigate risks associated with the potential release of excess water from the dam.
• Role of Local Authorities: It is also recommended that the local tahsildar and officials from the Revenue Department inform the public about the evolving situation, ensuring that residents are aware and can take necessary action to ensure their safety.

The article emphasizes the importance of disaster management and emergency planning in light of the variable weather conditions and their direct impact on the water levels in the Hemavathi reservoir.

Important Sentences:

• The Superintending Engineer warned downstream residents of the Hemavathi reservoir to be alert due to rising water levels.
• As of June 18, 2025, the reservoir level was at 2,911.35 feet, just 10.65 feet below the full level of 2,922 feet.
• The inflow to the reservoir was recorded at 19,546 cusecs due to incessant rains.
• G.K. Jyothi advised nearby residents to evacuate to safer places.
• Local tahsildars and Revenue Department officials are encouraged to inform the public about the situation for safety.

This summary ensures an understanding of the situation concerning the Hemavathi reservoir, highlighting the actions recommended for public safety in response to environmental factors affecting water levels.

Summary of Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL) Recognition

Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL) has recently been awarded the prestigious ‘24th Global Greentech Environment & Sustainability Summit Awards 2025’ under the ‘Environment Protection’ category. This accolade, conferred by the Greentech Foundation, highlights MRPL's steadfast commitment to environmental sustainability and its ongoing efforts to reduce its ecological impact.

Key Facts and Developments:

• Award Recognition: MRPL was honored at a ceremony in New Delhi, emphasizing its commitment to ecological preservation.
• General Managers Involved: The award was received by General Managers Prasanna Kumar T. and Nirankar Singh on behalf of the MRPL team.
• Date of Publication: The news article was published on June 18, 2025.

Notable Initiatives by MRPL:

MRPL has undertaken a series of key projects that demonstrate its commitment to both business excellence and environmental performance:

• Utilization of RLNG: The refinery is using Regasified Liquefied Natural Gas as a cleaner alternative fuel.
• De-Odour Unit: An in-house developed de-odour unit has been installed at the effluent treatment plant (ETP) to improve odor management.
• Particulate Matter Reduction: A wet gas scrubber has been integrated to reduce particulate matter emissions beyond the required compliance standards.
• City Sewage Water Reuse: MRPL has adopted the practice of using treated city sewage water in its refinery operations, assisting in resource conservation.
• Oily Sludge Utilization: The refinery is utilizing oily sludge from the effluent treatment plant at its delayed coker unit (DCU) to create beneficial products.

Conclusion:

The recognition received by MRPL reflects the company’s strategic commitment to environmental sustainability while ensuring operational efficiency. Such initiatives align with broader national and international efforts to combat climate change and promote sustainable industry practices.

Important Points:

• MRPL won the ‘24th Global Greentech Environment & Sustainability Summit Awards 2025’.
• The award was granted for its efforts in environmental protection.
• Presented in New Delhi, with General Managers Prasanna Kumar T. and Nirankar Singh receiving it.
• Key projects have focused on cleaner fuel usage, waste management, and sustainability.
• Initiatives include the use of RLNG, installation of advanced environmental technology, and resource recycling.
• The article highlights MRPL's dual focus on business excellence and environmental performance.
• Date of announcement: June 18, 2025.

Summary of the Godavari-Banakacherla Project Environmental Clearance Discussion

On June 17, 2025, the Environmental Appraisal Committee (EAC) of the Ministry of Environment convened a crucial meeting regarding the environmental clearance for the Godavari-Banakacherla Project, led by Professor Chakrapani. The session took place virtually from the Ministry’s office in New Delhi, focusing on evaluating the environmental implications of the proposed project submitted by the Andhra Pradesh Government.

Key Details:

• EAC Meeting Significance: This meeting is a critical step in the approval process for the Godavari-Banakacherla Link Project, highlighting its potential environmental impacts.

• Project Overview: The project aims to divert water from the Godavari River to the Krishna River basin, which is strongly contested by the neighboring Telangana state.

• Evaluation Process: The EAC is currently reviewing the Pre-Feasibility Report (PFR) concerning the project and is expected to assess the findings through comprehensive environmental impact studies.

• Role of Andhra Pradesh Government: The state is required to conduct extensive environmental studies as part of the clearance process, which the EAC will consider in its report. This report is essential for subsequent permissions and the preparation of a Detailed Project Report (DPR).

• Opposition from Telangana: Telangana’s Irrigation Minister, Uttam Kumar Reddy, has formally objected to the project through a letter to the EAC. He urged the committee to reject the proposed project outright, citing that Andhra Pradesh proceeded without sufficient consent or notification to Telangana, potentially infringing upon Telangana's water rights.

• Legal and Constitutional Context: The EAC's evaluation falls under the purview of environmental laws governing inter-state water resources, emphasizing the importance of multi-state negotiations regarding water sharing and rights.

• Next Steps: Following the EAC's assessment, the future of the Banakacherla Project will hinge on the findings outlined in the report, which could shape the discussions on permissions and regional cooperation or conflict.

Important Bullet Points:

• EAC meeting on June 17, 2025, discusses environmental clearance for the Godavari-Banakacherla Project.
• Meeting chaired by Professor Chakrapani; conducted virtually from New Delhi.
• The proposal submitted by the Andhra Pradesh Government is under review by the EAC.
• Project aims to divert Godavari waters to the Krishna River basin.
• Telangana Government, via Minister Uttam Kumar Reddy, strongly opposes project, citing water rights violations.
• Environmental impact studies to be conducted by A.P. Government as part of the approval process.
• EAC's evaluation report critical for determining future permissions and projects.
• Legal context involves inter-state negotiations on water resource management.
• The EAC meeting and its outcomes are significant for regional cooperation dynamics.

The developments surrounding the Godavari-Banakacherla Project underscore the intricate balance between environmental considerations and inter-state resource management in India, which remains a pivotal issue in regional governance and cooperative federalism.

Summary of World Environment Day Article - June 5, 2025

World Environment Day, celebrated on June 5, drew attention to the critical condition of our planet and the significance of collective efforts to safeguard it. The theme for this year, “Beat Plastic Pollution,” highlights a pervasive environmental issue with an estimated annual cost ranging from $300 billion to $600 billion, as per United Nations assessments.

Key Points:

• Plastic Pollution Statistics:

  • Over 400 million tonnes of plastic produced globally each year.
  • Less than 10% of this plastic is recycled.
  • Approximately 11 million tonnes enter aquatic systems annually.
  • Microplastics infiltrate food, water, and air supply, exacerbating public health risks.

• Changing Consumer Behavior:

  • A project initiated in Bengaluru aims to reduce dependency on bottled water through increased consumer confidence in alternative water sources. The impetus for this initiative stemmed from the challenges faced in accessing safe drinking water without resorting to plastic bottles.

• Bottled Water Consumption Trends:

  • Global bottled water consumption exceeds half a trillion liters annually, fueled by concerns about water safety.
  • This rise in consumption leads to heightened plastic waste and environmental burdens.

• Research Collaboration and Outcomes:

  • The U.K. has partnered with the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment to investigate water quality perceptions among consumers in Bengaluru.
  • Evidence indicates consumers often prefer bottled water due to uncertainty over the quality of other options.
  • Many tested water samples failed to meet safe drinking water standards, justifying consumer apprehension.

• Technological Solutions:

  • A proposed solution involves using technology to enhance consumer trust in filtered water quality through reliable data on water maintenance and consumption.
  • The implementation of transparency regarding filter maintenance in public spaces could reassure consumers and motivate a shift away from bottled water.

• Environmental and Social Costs:

  • Plastic pollution incurs both environmental degradation and adverse social impacts, observable throughout urban and natural landscapes.
  • Advocates for solutions emphasize the necessity for local initiatives that can contribute to broader global environmental strategies.

• Role of Institutions and International Collaboration:

  • The U.K.-India partnership aims to leverage expertise in climate action, sustainability, and renewable energy.
  • Ongoing support for climate finance initiatives and collaboration in scientific domains serves both nations' mutual interests.

Conclusion:

Bengaluru is positioned to innovate and implement sustainable solutions to combat plastic reliance and contribute to broader environmental goals. By fostering consumer confidence in alternative water sourcing and harnessing technological advancements, the city can lead efforts to mitigate plastic pollution effectively.

Date of Publication: June 17, 2025.

On June 16, 2025, heavy rainfall affected the Kasaragod and Kannur districts of Kerala, resulting in significant disruption and the issuance of a red alert by the India Meteorological Department (IMD). The alert warned of extremely heavy rainfall exceeding 204.4 mm over a 24-hour period, leading to the closure of all educational institutions, including colleges, Kendriya Vidyalayas, and anganwadis.

Key Developments:

• Impact on Residents:

  • A relief camp was established at Paramba Government L.P. School in West Eleri panchayat, housing 44 individuals, comprised of two pregnant women, seven senior citizens, and seven children including two toddlers.
  • People from low-lying areas evacuated to the homes of relatives due to safety concerns.

• Landslide Incidents:

  • A minor landslide occurred in Kottamala, impacting agricultural crops such as rubber and cassava, and damaging the property of local resident Shiju. The Vellarikunda Tehsildar, P.V. Murali, assessed the damage while 10 families were relocated from nearby areas to ensure their safety.
  • At Dharmathadka, a CPI(M) branch committee office collapsed without any injuries reported.
  • Another landslide at Challangayam in Thalamugar threatened five houses, prompting local residents to seek action from the authorities.

• Traffic and Safety Measures:

  • Due to multiple minor landslides, the District Disaster Management Authority temporarily banned vehicular traffic on the Cherkala-Bevinje stretch of National Highway 66, allowing only ambulances and emergency vehicles under supervision. Regular traffic would resume post-technical inspections confirming safety.

• Water Level Concerns:

  • Water levels at river gauge stations in Manjeswaram, Puthige, Madhur, and Uppala surpassed danger marks, elevating alertness among authorities.
  • In Kannur, heavy rainfall exceeding 152.20 mm led to the opening of 13 out of 16 shutters of the Pazhassi barrage, affecting local infrastructure. Floodwaters submerged the Venayikadavu bridge in Payyavoor and inundated nearby paddy fields.

• Health Services Disruptions:

  • Eyecare surgeries scheduled at Kannur district hospital were cancelled due to water leakage in the operation theatre caused by the heavy rain. Affected patients, some who had traveled from distant locations after undergoing preoperative procedures, were informed of the cancellations, resulting in protests from patients and families.
  • Discussions between Congress workers and hospital authorities, specifically Deputy Superintendent Dr. Griffin Surendran, led to assurances regarding the prompt repair of the theatre and disinfection by June 13, which quelled the protests.

Conclusion: The heavy rains in Kerala have led to severe disruptions in both social and infrastructural sectors as residents face evacuation, health services curtailment, and damage to property. Continuous monitoring and prompt action by local authorities are crucial to navigate the ongoing adverse weather conditions.

Key Points:

• Red alert issued by IMD for excessive rainfall exceeding 204.4 mm.
• Closure of all educational institutions in Kasaragod and Kannur.
• Relief camp established for affected residents; landslides reported with relocation of families.
• Ban on vehicular traffic on NH 66 due to safety concerns.
• Cancellation of eye surgeries in Kannur hospital due to water leakage.
• Protests led to discussions and assurances for repairs and future safety.

The article discusses a significant initiative undertaken by the government of Delhi, led by Chief Minister Rekha Gupta, aimed at mechanizing the process of road cleaning to combat air pollution in the Capital. The demonstration of new mechanical road sweeping machines, water sprinklers, and anti-smog guns marks a progressive step towards achieving cleaner air quality.

Key Highlights:

• Date of Initiative: June 16, 2025.

• Chief Minister: Rekha Gupta demonstrated the new mechanization tools.

• Project Components:

  • Deployment of 460 water sprinkler machines equipped with anti-smog guns.
  • Introduction of 70 mechanical road sweeping (MRS) machines.
  • Inclusion of 70 litter pickers, water tankers, and dust dump vehicles.

• Objective: The initiative aims to enhance efforts in improving air quality, particularly before the winter season when levels of air pollution typically surge in Delhi.

• Technological Features of Machines:

  • Equipped with GPS for location tracking.
  • CCTV for surveillance and monitoring.
  • Real-time Air Quality Index (AQI) monitors.
  • Integrated with video analytics and IoT sensors.

• Operational Benefits:

  • Machines will facilitate spraying, garbage unloading, and litter collection, thereby improving street cleaning efficiency and reducing dust pollution.
  • An operation strategy ensures that each machine will be monitored from a central control room to maximize effectiveness, ensuring they are operational at the right place and time.

• Continuous Operations:

  • Over 1,000 water sprinklers are expected to remain active throughout the year, with the exception of monsoon seasons, contributing to sustained air quality improvement.

• Previous Government Plan:

  • In 2023, the Aam Aadmi Party government had proposed a similar project worth ₹2,388 crore, which was not executed mainly due to jurisdictional challenges involving the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD).
  • In 2024, the MCD aimed to broaden the project to include waste management and road maintenance requiring new Cabinet approval.

• Current Status: The Gupta-led Cabinet approved a revised project plan in May 2025, signaling a commitment toward improving urban sanitation using advanced technologies.

Conclusion:

This mechanization initiative signifies a shift towards a more technology-driven approach to sanitation management in Delhi, indicating the state's efforts to mitigate pollution and improve public health through advanced urban infrastructure.

Important Sentences:

• Chief Minister Rekha Gupta demonstrated new mechanization tools on June 16, 2025.
• The project includes 460 water sprinklers, 70 mechanical road sweepers, and additional waste management tools.
• The machines will use advanced technology, including GPS and AQI monitors, for effective operation.
• Over 1,000 water sprinklers will operate year-round, barring the monsoon, to enhance air quality.
• The initiative marks a transition towards a new sanitation mindset driven by technology.

On June 17, 2025, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) organized a national workshop in Jodhpur, focusing on “Strategies for Combating Desertification and Drought”. This event coincided with the observance of World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought 2025 and aimed at promoting sustainable land management practices in arid and semi-arid ecosystems in India.

Key Highlights of the Workshop:

• Union Ministers Present: The workshop featured Union Minister for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Bhupender Yadav, as the chief guest, alongside Union Minister for Tourism and Culture, Shri Gajendra Singh Shekhawat, and MP Shri Rajendra Gehlot.

• Topic of Emphasis: The discussions centered around combating desertification and ecological restoration, with a particular focus on sustainable agricultural practices and community-driven initiatives.

• Desertification Causes: Minister Yadav indicated that a significant portion of India is facing desertification due to unsustainable agricultural practices, including excessive fertilizer use and indiscriminate pesticide application, which threaten food security and biodiversity.

• Government Commitment: In alignment with the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, the Indian government is adopting comprehensive strategies that include ecosystem restoration, enhancing drought resilience, and biodiversity.

Initiatives Announced:

• Amrit Sarovars: An initiative aimed at rejuvenating water bodies to fight desertification and support ecosystems.

• Matri Van: A project encouraging community participation in tree planting, particularly among mothers, to foster a connection with nature.

• Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam: A nationwide campaign led by PM Modi for citizens to plant trees in honor of their mothers, symbolizing respect for the environment.

Importance of the Aravalli Range:

• Minister Yadav stressed the ecological and cultural significance of the Aravalli Mountain range, which spans 700 kilometers across 29 districts. It acts as a natural barrier against desertification, benefiting regions like Eastern Rajasthan, Haryana, and the National Capital Region.

• Shri Yadav urged local communities to actively engage in conservation efforts to restore degraded land, emphasizing that ecological stability is vital for economic prosperity.

Remarks by Minister Gajendra Singh Shekhawat:

• Minister Shekhawat noted India's remarkable progress in increasing forest cover amid a global decline, underscoring the role of the Aravalli range in water conservation, groundwater recharge, and maintaining biodiversity.

• He highlighted the role of local communities in environmental conservation, emphasizing the historical significance of the Aravallis in sustaining civilization.

Publications and Documents Released:

1. Information Booklet on Aravalli Districts
2. Revised Mission Document of the Green India Mission
3. Book on Sustainable Land Management (SLM)
4. Launch of the National Afforestation Monitoring System (NAMS)
5. Distribution of AFRI Shesham Clones to farmers

Technical Sessions and Discussions:

• The workshop included technical sessions focusing on Sustainable Land Management (SLM), featuring discussions on integrated, community-led restoration efforts.

• Presentations from development partners like UNDP, ADB, GIZ, and the World Bank examined global and national case studies on land restoration and desertification control.

• A dedicated session discussed the Aravalli Green Wall Project, focusing on interstate collaboration in ecological restoration.

• The event concluded with a commitment to science-based, participatory, and policy-driven measures for mitigating desertification.

Conclusion:

The workshop underscored India’s leadership role in combating desertification within the framework of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). It highlighted India’s target to achieve land degradation neutrality by 2030 with an emphasis on collaborative efforts, knowledge exchange, and concrete field-level impacts.

Important Facts:

• Date of Event: June 17, 2025
• Focus: Combating desertification, ecological restoration, and sustainable land management
• Key Initiatives: Amrit Sarovars, Matri Van, Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam
• Geographical Focus: Aravalli Mountain range and its ecological significance

This initiative reflects India’s efforts to address significant environmental challenges, particularly in vulnerable regions like the Aravallis and the Thar Desert.

Summary of the Discovery of Fossil Leaves in Assam

Recent paleobotanical research led by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) in Lucknow, India, has unveiled significant findings in the Makum Coalfield of Assam. The discovery revolves around fossilized leaves dating back approximately 24 to 23 million years to the late Oligocene epoch, which provides fresh insights into the region's biodiversity and ecological history.

Key points from the study are as follows:

• Fossil Discovery: Scientists identified fossil leaves in the Makum Coalfield, which bear similarity to modern species found in the Nothopegia genus, located in the Western Ghats— a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its rich biodiversity.

• Significance of Findings: These fossilized leaves represent the oldest known fossil record of the Nothopegia genus globally and indicate that this plant once thrived in Northeast India, long before it became extinct from the region.

• Methodology: The analysis utilized morphological characteristics, herbarium comparisons, and cluster analysis for identification. Advanced techniques, such as the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP), helped reconstruct the climatic conditions of the late Oligocene, suggesting a warm and humid environment in Northeast India similar to the current climate in the Western Ghats.

• Environmental Changes: The research outlined drastic geological changes over millions of years, particularly the uplift of the Himalayas due to tectonic activity. This resulted in altered temperature, rainfall patterns, and winds that eventually rendered the northeastern landscape inhospitable for tropical flora like Nothopegia, leading to its extinction in that region.

• Survival in the Western Ghats: Despite its disappearance from Northeast India, the Nothopegia species survived and became endemic to the Western Ghats, showcasing its resilience to past climatic changes.

• Implications of Findings: The study indicates that extinction and migration due to climate change are historical phenomena. The authors emphasize the importance of understanding these processes in predicting modern plant responses to rapid climate change driven by human activities.

• Biodiversity Conservation: The research underscores the need to protect biodiversity hotspots like the Western Ghats, as these regions serve as crucial refuges for ancient plant lineages amid contemporary climatic challenges.

• Future Applications: This paleobotanical investigation offers perspectives on how ecosystems evolve and adapt, providing critical insights for conserving India's biodiversity under ongoing climatic stress.

This study highlights the significance of historical ecological research in understanding contemporary biodiversity challenges and stresses the vital role that preservation of natural habitats plays in sustaining ecological heritage.

In conclusion, the fossil discoveries in Assam not only paint a clearer picture of India's geological and botanical past but also serve as a warning and guide for future conservation efforts in an era of unprecedented environmental change.

Bullet Points:

• Fossil leaves discovered in Makum Coalfield, Assam, dated back 24-23 million years.
• Represents the world’s oldest fossil record of the Nothopegia genus.
• Methodology included morphological analysis and the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP).
• Northeast India had a humid climate in the late Oligocene, unlike today.
• Geological changes from Himalayan uplift led to the extinction of Nothopegia in Northeast India.
• Nothopegia survived in the Western Ghats, indicating resilience in stable environments.
• Highlights historical extinction and migration patterns linked to climate change.
• Findings stress the importance of conserving biodiversity hotspots like the Western Ghats.
• Offers insights into ecological evolution and future plant responses to climate change.