Summary of Key Points on Waste Generation During Deepavali:

Waste Generation Statistics:

• Municipal Solid Waste: India produces approximately 1.6 lakh tonnes of municipal solid waste daily, as reported by the Swachch Bharat Mission. Only about half of this waste is processed.
• Festive Waste Increase: During Deepavali week, cities experience significant spikes in waste generation. For example:
  • Nashik: Collected over 750 tonnes of additional garbage.
  • Vadodara: Saw a 20% increase in waste during Navratri-Dasara.

Food Waste:

• Annual Food Waste: Indian households waste around 55 kg of food per person annually, totaling over 78 million tonnes.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Decomposing food emits methane, a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2.

Packaging Waste:

• Plastic Recycling Rate: India's plastic recycling rate is about 13%.
• Non-recyclable Materials: Items like laminated gift wraps and glossy packaging are often non-recyclable and contribute significantly to waste.

E-Waste:

• Annual E-Waste Generation: India generates over 1 million tonnes of e-waste each year.
• Take-back Mechanisms: New regulations exist, but implementation is patchy, leading to increased informal landfill disposal of electronic items.

Environmental Impact:

• Two-fold ecological damage:
  • Physical Burden: Increased waste management challenges for urban local bodies.
  • Long-term Environmental Costs: Pollution from microplastics, methane from food waste, and toxic leachate from e-waste dumps.

Policy Recommendations and Actions:

1. Waste-wise Gifting Codes:

   • Encourage biodegradable or compostable packaging instead of non-recyclable materials.
   • Suggested gifts that are useful or sustainable (e.g., refillable products, artisan foods, native seed bombs).

2. Policy Enhancements:

   • Mandatory Packaging Standards: Clear requirements for recyclability or compostability labels.
   • Ban packaging that fuses plastics and paper.

3. Food Waste Management:

   • Large events should submit plans for food waste management and collaborate with food redistribution agencies.

4. E-Waste Collection Initiatives:

   • Retailers to establish collection bins for used e-products, especially during the festive season.

5. Urban Infrastructure Improvement:

   • Enhance waste management infrastructure to handle increased waste during October-November, including more collection pickups and decentralized composting.

6. Economic Incentives:

   • Propose a "festive waste surcharge" on non-compliant packaging to motivate eco-friendly practices, with rebates for those who comply.

7. Cultural Narrative Shift:

   • Promote minimalism and sustainability through media and influencer engagement to shift public perception and behavior towards responsible gifting.

Conclusion:

The festive celebration of Deepavali presents an opportunity to harmonize tradition with ecological responsibility, urging citizens to seek sustainable alternatives that respect both culture and the environment. With informed choices, informed policies, and a shift in societal narrative, it is feasible to minimize waste and its detrimental impact on the planet, ultimately leading to a brighter, cleaner future.

Summary of Supreme Court Ruling on Environmental Clearances

Judicial Ruling:

• On May 16, 2025, the Supreme Court of India declared retrospective environmental clearances illegal, asserting that projects built without prior approval cannot be legalized later.
• The ruling stemmed from previous cases, notably S.P. Muthuraman v. Union of India (2013) and Vanashakti v. Union of India (2025), where the National Green Tribunal (NGT) and the Supreme Court confirmed the stance against post-facto clearances.

Legal Context:

• Article 21 of the Indian Constitution emphasizes the right to a healthy environment, which underpins the importance of prior environmental clearances.
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, governs environmental regulations including the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2006, and the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification, 2011.

Implications of the Ruling:

• Immediate Effects:

  • The ruling has led to confusion and hesitation in decision-making among governments, regulators, and citizens.
  • Some states have commenced demolition drives targeting various infrastructures like schools, colleges, residential buildings, and factories lacking prior clearances.

• Concerns:

  • Environmental experts caution that mass demolitions could be ecologically destructive, generating debris, emissions, and displacing communities.
  • The ruling treats all environmental violations uniformly, disregarding intent, scale, and impact which is contrary to sustainable development principles.

Legislative Framework:

• The decision potentially affects not just EIA but also other environmental laws like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• If broadly applied, it could compel operations lacking prior consent from State Pollution Control Boards to cease, which may have widespread economic and social repercussions.

Future Directions and Recommendations:

• Experts advocate for a hybrid compliance model to balance environmental protection with socio-economic stability, which could include:

  • Prohibiting regularization in ecologically sensitive areas.
  • Mandating environmental assessments for existing projects.
  • Enforcing fines and restoration obligations for violators.
  • Implementing independent monitoring and defined compliance timelines.

• The Supreme Court has indicated willingness to review the ruling in response to petitions from stakeholders, including the Confederation of Real Estate Developers’ Associations of India, to explore undiscovered aspects of the judgment without diluting its core principles.

Conclusion:

• Effective environmental governance necessitates evolving frameworks that promote compliance without crippling livelihoods. Policymakers are urged to adopt science-based strategies that foster both environmental sustainability and economic growth.

Climate Models: Overview and Importance

1. Definition of Climate Models:

   • Computer simulations that replicate Earth's climate system (atmosphere, ocean, land, ice) using mathematical algorithms and physical principles.

2. Purpose of Climate Models:

   • To forecast changes in temperature, humidity, and other climatic variables under various scenarios, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions.
   • They help establish whether extreme weather events are a result of climate change or just normal variability.

3. Types of Climate Models:

   • Energy Balance Models (EBMs): First developed in the 1960s; calculate surface temperature by assessing energy entering and leaving Earth's atmosphere.
   • Radiative Convective Models (RCMs): More complex models that simulate energy transfer throughout the atmosphere and estimate temperature variations with elevation.
   • General Circulation Models (GCMs): The most advanced; simulate large-scale climate processes across the atmosphere, oceans, land, and ice.
   • Regional Climate Models (RCMs): Similar to GCMs, but focus on specific regions for more accurate forecasts.

4. Accuracy of Climate Models:

   • Modern climate models provide reliable predictions for long-term, large-scale climate trends, such as sea-level rise and polar ice loss.
   • They have successfully forecasted general patterns of temperature, precipitation, and ocean circulation on a global scale.

5. Limitations:

   • Current models may lack precision due to:
     • Incomplete data on complex processes (cloud dynamics, volcanic eruptions).
     • Oversimplification of regional details, which especially affects predictions in the Global South (e.g., monsoon patterns).
     • Generally, climate models are less accurate in regions with insufficient observational data, leading to potential underestimation or overestimation of extreme weather events.

6. Impact of Climate Change:

   • Climate change is acknowledged by scientists as a real threat, primarily driven by the continuing emission of greenhouse gases, leading to rising global mean surface temperatures.

International Context

• UN Predictive Models: The United Nations utilizes such models to make climate-related forecasts, which have been called into question by prominent figures, such as former US President Donald Trump, labeling them as misrepresentations.

Science & Technology Relevance

• Research Institutions: Entities like the Centre of Science, Technology and Policy (CSTEP) contribute to the understanding and development of these models, emphasizing their foundational basis in physics, chemistry, and biological sciences.

Conclusion

• Climate models remain a crucial tool for understanding and addressing climate change, guiding policy decisions aimed at mitigating its impacts. Despite limitations, they are vital for strategic planning and establishing scientific consensus on climate trends and phenomena.

Summary of Key Developments in Renewable Energy and Electricity Sector

1. Global Energy Trends:

• For the first time, renewable energy has surpassed coal as the world’s leading source of electricity.
• In early 2025, renewables accounted for 34.3% of global electricity generation, while coal dipped to 33.1%.
• Electricity demand globally grew by 2.6% in the first half of 2025, driven fully by increases in solar (31%) and wind (7.7%) generation.

2. India’s Renewable Energy Landscape:

• As of June 2025, India’s non-fossil fuel sources constituted 50.1% of its installed electricity capacity.
• Installed capacity data:
  • Total installed capacity: 485 GW.
  • Renewables (solar, wind, small hydro, biogas): 185 GW.
  • Large hydro: 49 GW; Nuclear: 9 GW.
  • Thermal power (coal & gas): 49.9% at 242 GW, down from 70% in 2015.
• India's commitment under the Paris Agreement (2015) was to achieve 40% non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, later raised to 50% in 2022.

3. Emission Trends:

• India's CO2 emissions from the power sector showed a marginal decline for the first half of 2025.
• The decline was attributed partly to improved weather conditions and the increasing share of renewables.

4. Challenges in the Transition:

• The rapid growth in renewables has led to grid instability due to the lack of adequate energy storage systems and thermal power support.
• Distribution companies face losses, leading to challenges with electricity supply management.

5. Government Policy Responses:

• The Indian government has initiated policy reforms to enhance energy storage and stabilize the grid.
• Recent measures include:
  • Advisory by Central Electricity Authority to co-locate energy storage with solar projects.
  • Expansion of the viability gap funding (VGF) for battery storage to 43 GWh, with an outlay of Rs 5,400 crore.
  • New pumped hydro projects expected to reach 51 GW by 2032.
  • Extension of inter-state transmission system (ISTS) waivers for storage projects until June 2028.

6. International Energy Agency (IEA) Insights:

• IEA predicts global renewables could more than double by the decade's end, with solar power expected to contribute approximately 80% of new clean energy capacity.
• China is expected to remain the largest market for renewables, with India emerging as the second-largest.

7. Judicial and Constitutional Context:

• India’s push towards renewable energy aligns with constitutional principles and rights to a clean environment and sustainable development as enshrined in Article 21 and the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs), reflecting the government's commitment to environmentally responsible energy generation.

Conclusion:

The transition to renewable energy is a crucial development for India and globally, underscored by significant government initiatives and challenges in energy management. The increase in renewable capacity and corresponding decline in coal use mark a pivotal shift in the global energy landscape, driven by policy adaptations, technological advancements, and international commitments.

National Camel Sustainability Initiative (NCSI) - Key Highlights

Background and Purpose

• The Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying is considering the launch of the National Camel Sustainability Initiative (NCSI).
• The initiative aims to address the declining camel population in India, which has drastically reduced from about 11 lakh in 1977 to approximately 2,52,956 as per the 20th Livestock Census (2019).

Camel Population Decline

• Population statistics:
  • 1977: 11 lakh camels
  • 2013: ~4 lakh camels
  • 2019: 2,52,956 camels
• Major camel populations are found in:
  • Rajasthan: 2.12 lakh (predominantly breeds like Bikaneri and Jaisalmeri)
  • Gujarat: 27,620 (Kharai breed)
  • Other states: Haryana (5,154), Punjab (120), Uttar Pradesh (2,424), Madhya Pradesh (1,753), Ladakh (298).

Reasons for Decline

• Mechanisation of agriculture has diminished the utility of camels.
• Cultural shifts, particularly within the Raika community, which traditionally reared camels, leading to generational abandonment of camel husbandry.

Proposed Initiatives Under NCSI

1. Promotion of Camel Milk: Focus on camel rearing for milk production due to its nutritional benefits.

   • Camel milk is marketed by Amul, and there's potential for greater demand through awareness campaigns.
   • Addressing myths surrounding camel milk consumption to boost acceptance.

2. Policy Recommendations:

   • Need for a centralized, coordinated policy for camel conservation and sustainable management.
   • Proposed reforms include:
     • Amendments to the Rajasthan Camel Act to balance conservation with community livelihood rights.
     • Establishing safe inter-state trade mechanisms and enhancing transport infrastructure.

3. Cross-Sectoral Coordination: Engage various ministries such as:

   • Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying
   • Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
   • Ministry of Rural Development
   • Ministry of Tourism
   • State governments

4. Camel Awareness Campaign:

   • Integrate camel themes into educational curricula and significant public events.
   • Encourage nationwide recognition of World Camel Day on June 22 to promote camel culture and conservation.

Economic Implications and Strategic Importance

• The decline of the camel population affects agricultural practices and livelihoods in semi-arid regions.
• Promoting camel products could enhance local economies, especially in states like Rajasthan and Gujarat where camels are integral to livelihoods.

Governance and Future Directions

• The draft policy highlights the lack of focused attention and funding for camel-related programs within mainstream livestock development initiatives.
• Emphasis on a national strategy to enhance the camel economy and support the sustainability of camel herders.

Conclusion

The National Camel Sustainability Initiative seeks to rejuvenate the camel population in India through a multi-pronged approach emphasizing conservation, milk production, and awareness, ultimately aiming to restore the socio-economic balance for camel-dependent communities.

Elephant Conflict Study in Karnataka and Kerala

Key Findings:

• Study Title: "Community mitigation decisions in elephant conflict zones of southern India depend on environmental and socio-economic drivers."
• Published in: Scientific Reports.

Study Specifics:

• Conducted by the Centre for Wildlife Studies (CWS).
• Surveyed 507 rural households across Karnataka and Kerala.
• Investigated environmental factors influencing human-elephant conflict mitigation, including:
  • Rainfall: Most significant predictor (28%).
  • Elevation: 16.8%.
  • Acres Owned: 15.7%.

Impacts of Barriers:

• Common barriers (trenches, solar, electric fences) induce unintended harm to elephants:
  • Karnataka: Trenches responsible for 12.8% of elephant injuries.
  • Karnataka: Solar fences contributed to 25.5% of recorded elephant deaths.
  • Kerala: Electric fences accounted for 38.3% of recorded elephant deaths.
• Poor maintenance and design of these barriers lead to fatal accidents despite their deterrent purpose.

Community Insights:

• Households in drier areas with modest landholdings had a 68% probability of using conflict mitigation measures (solar fencing, trenches, alarm systems).
• Households in wetter areas with large plots near waterbodies exhibited only a 7% probability of using these measures.
• Cultural Context: 65.8% of respondents expressed sadness or empathy towards injured or dead elephants, viewing the species with cultural and religious reverence (including associations with the Hindu god, Ganesha).
• A notable number of respondents displayed moral reluctance to harm elephants, highlighting community respect for wildlife.

Research Methodology:

• Utilized a Classification and Regression Tree (CART) model to assess decision-making drivers related to mitigation measures and their consequences for elephants.

Recommendations:

• Emphasizes the need for proactive, balanced solutions that prevent human-elephant conflict while ensuring the survival of elephants within changing landscapes.
• A call for strategies that align human needs with long-term wildlife conservation goals.

Contextual Importance:

• Addresses the growing human-wildlife conflict issues exacerbated by socio-economic factors and environmental characteristics in India.
• Suggests a multidisciplinary approach to wildlife management that includes community engagement and respect for animal welfare, essential for sustainable biodiversity conservation.

Exam-Focused Notes

Geographical and Environmental Impact

• Location: Sri Lanka serves as a natural barrier to the southeastern coast of India, specifically shielding it from the long-period swell waves generated in the Southern Ocean.
• Wave Impact: Long-period swells have historically caused coastal flooding and erosion along southwestern India, particularly in Kerala, while the eastern coast (Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh) remains largely unaffected.

Scientific Research Findings

• Research Institutions: Conducted by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) with contributions from the Department of Marine Geology at Mangalore University and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune.
• Methodology: Utilized real-time data from wave rider buoys deployed off Kollam and Pondicherry, alongside high-resolution simulations from the ‘WAVEWATCH III’ model.
• Key Data:
  • Over 96% of long-period swell events observed at Kollam did not reach Pondicherry.
  • Hypothetical removal of Sri Lanka from the model showed that destructive southern ocean swells could impact India’s southeast coast.

Implications of Findings

• Climate Change Context: The study has significant implications concerning global sea level rise and climate change, indicating that changes in coastal geography (e.g., land submergence) could alter wave propagation paths and expose new areas to marine hazards.
• Assessment and Warning Systems: Emphasizes the importance of integrating natural geographic features into coastal hazard assessments and early warning systems, particularly in a warming world.

Contributions and Publication

• Co-authors of Study: T.M. Balakrishnan Nair (INCOIS director), K.G. Sandhya, R. Harikumar, P.A. Francis, and Balaji Baduru.
• Publication: Results published in the Journal of Earth System Science, documenting the active role of the Sri Lankan Land Mass in wave dynamics.

This study illustrates the interconnectedness of geographical features, meteorological phenomena, and climate change, highlighting the need for comprehensive strategies in coastal management and disaster preparedness.

Exam-Focused Notes on Nilgiri Tahr Conservation

1. Significance of Nilgiri Tahr

• Species Role: The Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius) plays a critical role in the ecosystem by facilitating the formation of rivers. These rivers are essential for:
  • Providing drinking water.
  • Supporting agricultural activities.
• Habitat: Inhabits the grasslands above shola forests in Tamil Nadu.

2. Ecological Functions

• Foraging Behavior: The foraging of Nilgiri Tahr contributes to:
  • Strengthening root systems of vegetation.
  • Enhancing rainwater percolation, leading to the formation of streams, rivulets, and rivers.

3. Conservation Status

• State Animal Designation: In 2023, the Nilgiri Tahr was declared the State Animal of Tamil Nadu.
• Population Statistics: Total enumeration of Nilgiri Tahr across Tamil Nadu is 1,303, found at 177 locations.
  • Highest Population: 334 individuals recorded in the grasslands above Valparai Shola Forests.

4. Awareness Initiatives

• Educational Programs: The Forest Department conducted an awareness program targeting students, featuring:
  • Rallies.
  • Signature campaigns.
  • Display of student artwork on Nilgiri Tahr.
• Art Engagement: Over 600 drawings created by students from across Tamil Nadu were showcased, representing a significant increase from approximately 100 drawings the previous year.

5. Environmental Importance

• Grassland Maintenance: The Nilgiri Tahr is vital for:
  • Preserving the ecological balance of high-altitude grasslands.
  • Protecting these ecosystems from invasive weeds and other threats.

6. Policy and Management

• Interventions for Shola Forests: While interventions can be implemented for rejuvenating Shola forests, maintaining the population of Nilgiri Tahr is highlighted as essential for preserving grasslands and the water cycle.

7. Constitutional Context and Legal Framework

• While specific constitutional articles are not mentioned in the article, actions related to wildlife conservation typically align with provisions under:
  • Article 48A of the Constitution of India, which mandates the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
  • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, which governs the protection of wildlife and their habitats.

Conclusion

The Nilgiri Tahr serves as a keystone species for its ecosystem, contributing significantly to water conservation and ecological stability. Educational initiatives enhance public awareness and participation in conservation efforts, reflecting the interconnectedness of biodiversity preservation and sustainable water resource management.

Summary of Key Facts and Data on Renewable Energy Developments (2025)

1. Global Energy Trends:

   • Renewable energy surpassed coal as the world’s leading source of electricity for the first time in the first half of 2025.
   • Global electricity demand grew by 2.6% but was entirely met by renewed investments in solar (31% increase) and wind (7.7% increase) energy.

2. India's Energy Landscape:

   • Non-fossil fuel sources accounted for 50.1% of India's installed electricity capacity as of June 30, 2025.
   • Installed capacity of renewables in India reached 185 GW, alongside large hydro (49 GW) and nuclear (9 GW), comprising over 50% of total capacity for the first time—up from 30% in 2015.
   • Thermal power (coal and gas) contributed the remaining 49.9% at 242 GW.

3. Constitutional Reference:

   • Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India committed to achieving 40% of its electricity capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, which was increased to 50% in 2022.

4. Emissions Data:

   • India’s carbon dioxide emissions from the power sector showed a slight decline, marking a crucial first. The electricity sector remains the largest contributor to the country's CO2 emissions.
   • More than 50% of India’s total carbon emissions arise from coal-based electricity generation.

5. Government Schemes and Policies:

   • Proactive government initiatives include:
     • An advisory by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) to align energy storage systems with solar projects for enhanced grid stability.
     • Expanded viability gap funding for battery storage: from 13 GWh to a total of 43 GWh with an investment of Rs 5,400 crore.
     • Anticipation of 51 GW of pumped hydro capacity by 2032.
     • Extension of inter-state transmission system (ISTS) waiver for storage projects until June 2028.

6. Economic Indicators and Future Projections:

   • The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that global renewable energy capacity could double by the end of the decade, with projections that 80% of this will come from solar power.
   • China is set to remain the largest market for renewable energy, with India projected to be the second-largest growth market.

7. Global Coal Market Dynamics:

   • Coal's share in global electricity generation fell to 33.1%, while renewable energy's share increased to 34.3% in 2025.
   • Temporary coal demand dips were noted in India, while more structural declines were observed in China.

8. Challenges in India's Energy Transition:

   • Despite increasing renewable capacity, stability issues in the electricity grid have arisen due to the lack of energy storage solutions, particularly during high demand periods when solar generation decreases.
   • The financial mismanagement in distribution companies (discoms) continues to be a significant concern.

This summary highlights India's efforts and challenges in the transition towards a more sustainable energy future, indicating both significant progress and critical hurdles that must be overcome.